Micromechanics and MEMS Classic and Seminal Papers to 1990

Acknowledgments and Dedication xi; Introduction xiii; Comments on Writing an Article xv@ SECTION 1 Early Papers in Micromechanics 1@ 1.1 There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom 3@ R. Feynman (Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, March 1992).:1.2 Infinitesimal Machinery 10@ R. Feynman (Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, March 1993).:1.3 The Resonant Gate Transistor 21@ H. C. Nathanson, W. E. Newell, R. A. Wickstrom, and J. R. Davis, Jr. (IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, March 1967).:1.4 Silicon Micromechanical Devices 38@ J. B. Angell, S. C. Terry, and P. W. Barth (Scientific American Journal, April 1983).:1.5 Anisotropic Etching of Silicon 50@ K. E. Bean (IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, October 1978).:1.6 Silicon as a Mechanical Material 58@ K. E. Petersen, (Proceedings of the IEEE, May 1982).:1.7 Microrobots and Micromechanical Systems 96@ W. S. N. Trimmer (Sensors and Actuators, September 1989).:1.8 Small Machines, Large Opportunities 117@ K. Gabriel, J. Jarvis, and W. Trimmer (Report of the NSF Workshop on Microelectromechanical Systems Research, July 1987).:@ SECTION 2 Side Drive Actuators 145@:2.1 IC-Processed Electrostatic Micro-Motors 147@ L-S. Fan, Y-C. Tai, and R. S. Muller (IEEE International Electronic Devices Meeting, December 1988).:2.2 IC-Processed Micro-Motors: Design, Technology, and Testing 151@ Y-C. Tai, L-S. Fan, and R. S. Muller (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:2.3 Surface-Micromachining Processes for Electrostatic Microactuator Fabrication 157@ T. A. Lober and R. T. Howe (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:2.4 A Study of Three Microfabricated Variable-Capacitance Motors 161,@ M. Mehregany, S. F. Bart, L. S. Tavrow, J. H. Lang, S. D. Senturia, and M. F. Schlecht (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:2.S Friction and Wear in Microfabricated Harmonic Side-Drive Motors 168@ M. Mehregany, S. D. Senturia, and J. H. Lang (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:2.6 Measurements of Electric Micromotor Dynamics 174@ S. F. Bart, M. Mehregany, L. S. Tavrow, J. H. Lang, and S. D. Senturia (Microstructures, Sensors, and Actuators, November 1990).: @:SECTION 3 Comb Drive Actuators 185@:3.1 Laterally Driven Polysilicon Resonant Microstructures 187@ W. C. Tang, T-C. H. Nguyen, and R. T. Howe (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:3.2 Electrostatic-Comb Drive of Lateral Polysilicon Resonators 194@ W. C. Tang, T-C.H. Nguyen, M. W. Judy, and R. T. Howe (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:3.3 Electrostatically Balanced Comb Drive for Controlled Levitation 198@ W. C. Tang, M. G. Lim, and R. T. Howe (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:3.4 Polysilicon Microgripper 203@ C-J. Kim, A. P. Pisano, R. S. Muller, and M. G. Lim (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:@ SECTION 4 Electrostatic Actuators 207@ 4.1 The Principle of an Electrostatic Linear Actuator Manufactured by Silicon Micromachining 209@ H. Fujita and A. Omodaka (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:4.2 Design Considerations for a Practical Electrostatic Micro-Motor 213@ W. S. N. Trimmer and K. J. Gabriel (Sensors and Actuators, 1987).:4.3 SCOFSS: A Small Cantilevered Optical Fiber Servo System 231@ J. E. Wood, S. C. Jacobsen, and K. W. Grace (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:4.4 Microactuators for Aligning Optical Fibers 237@ R. Jebens, W. Trimmer, and J. Walker (Sensors and Actuators, November 1989).:4.5 Large Displacement Linear Actuator 246@ R. A. Brennen, M. G. Lim, A. P. Pisano, and A. T. Chou (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:4.6 Multi-Layered Electrostatic Film Actuator 251@ S. Egawa and T. Higuchi (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:4.7 Movable Micromachined Silicon Plates With Integrated Position Sensing 257@ M. G. Allen, M. Scheidl, R. L. Smith, and A. D. Nikolich (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:4.8 Micro Electro Static Actuator With Three Degrees of Freedom 261@ T. Fukuda and T. Tanaka (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:4.9 The Modelling of Electrostatic Forces in Small Electrostatic Actuators 267@ R. H. Price, J. E. Wood, and S. C. Jacobsen (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:4.10 Silicon Electrostatic Motors 272@ W. S. N. Trimmer, K. J. Gabriel, and R. Mahadevan (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:4.11 Electrostatic Actuators for Micromechatronics 276@ H. Fujita and A. Omodaka (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:4.12 Electric Micromotors: Electromechanical Characteristics 286@ J. H. Lang, M. F. Schlecht, and R. T. Howe (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:4.13 Electroquasistatic Induction Micromotors 294@ S. F. Bart and J. H. Lang (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:4.14 A Perturbation Method for Calculating the Capacitance of Electrostatic Motors 300@ S. Kumar and D. Cho (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:@ SECTION 5 Magnetic Actuators 307@ 5.1 Magnetically Levitated Micro-Machines 309@ R. Pelrine and I. Busch-Vishniac (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:5.2 Fabrication and Testing of a Micro Superconducting Actuator Using the Meissner Effect 314@ Y-K. Kim, M. Katsurai, and H. Fujita (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:5.3 Room Temperature, Open-Loop Levitation of Microdevices Using Diamagnetic Materials 320@ R. E. Pelrine (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:@ SECTION 6 Harmonic Motors 325@ 6.1 An Operational Harmonic Electrostatic Motor 327@ W. Trimmer and R. Jebens (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:6.2 The Wobble Motor: An Electrostatic Planetary-Armature, Microactuator 331@ S. C. Jacobsen, R. H. Price, J. E. Wood, T. H. Rytting, and M. Rafaelof (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:6.3 An Electrostatic Top Motor and Its Characteristics 339@ M. Sakata, Y. Hatazawa, A. Omodaka, T. Kudoh, and H. Fujita (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:6.4 Operation of Microfabricated Harmonic and Ordinary Side-Drive Motors 344@ M. Mehregany, P. Nagarkar, S. D. Senturia, and J. H. Lang (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:@ SECTION 7 Other Actuators 353@ Thermal; 7.1 Micromechanical Silicon Actuators Based on Thermal Expansion Effects 355@ W. Riethmuller, W. Benecke, U. Schnakenberg, and A. Heuberger (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:7.2 CMOS ElectrothermalMicroactuators 359@ M. Parameswaran, Lj. Ristic, K. Chau, A. M. Robinson, and W. Allegretto (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:7.3 Electrically-Activated, Micromachined Diaphragm Valves 363@ H. Jerman (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:7.4 Study on Micro Engines-Miniaturizing Stirling Engines for Actuators and Heatpumps 368@ N. Nakajima, K. Ogawa and I. Fujimasa (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:@ Shape Memory Alloy; 7.5 A Micro Rotary Actuator Using Shape Memory Alloys 372@ K. J. Gabriel, W. S. N. Trimmer, and J. A. Walker (Sensors and Actuators, 1988).:7.6 Millimeter Size Joint Actuator Using Shape Memory Alloy 379@ K. Kuribayashi (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:7.7 Reversible SMA Actuator for Micron Sized Robot 385@ K. Kuribayashi and M. Yoshitake (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:7.8 Characteristics of Thin-Wire Shape Memory Actuators 390@ P. A. Neukomm, H. P. Bornhauser, T. Hochuli, R. Paravicini, and G. Schwarz (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:7.9 Shape Memory Alloy Microactuators 396@ M. Bergamasco, P. Dario, and F. Salsedo (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:@ Impact; 7.10 Micro Actuators Using Recoil of an Ejected Mass 401@ T. Higuchi, Y. Hojjat, and M. Watanabe (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleperators Workshop, November 1987).:7.11 Precise Positioning Mechanism Utilizing Rapid Deformations of Piezoelectric Elements 406@ T. Higuchi, Y. Yamagata, K. Furutani, and K. Kudoh (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:7.12 Tiny Silent Linear Cybernetic Actuator Driven by Piezoelectric Device With Electromagnetic Clamp 411@ K. Ikuta, S. Aritomi, and T. Kabashima (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems '92 February 1992).:7.13 Experimental Model and IC-Process Design of a Nanometer Linear Piezoelectric Stepper Motor 417@ J. W. Judy, D. L. Polla, and W. P. Robbins (Microstructures, Sensors, and Actuators, November 1990).:@ Piezoelectric; 7.14 Zinc-Oxide Thin Films for Integrated-Sensor Applications 424@ D. L. Polla and R. S. Muller (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensors Workshop, June 1986).:7.15 A Micromachined Manipulator for Submicron Positioning of Optical Fibers 427@ A. M. Feury, T. L. Poteat, and W. S. Trimmer (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensors Workshop, June 1986).:7.16 Ultrasonic Micromotors: Physics and Applications 428@ R. M. Moroney, R. M. White, and R. T. Howe (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).: @:SECTION 8 Valves and Pumps 435@ 8.1 A Microminiature Electric-to-Fluidic Valve 437@ M. J. Zdeblick and J. B. Angell (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:8.2 The Fabrication of Integrated Mass Flow Controllers 440@ M. Esashi, S. Eoh, T. Matsuo, and S. Choi (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:8.3 Normally Close Microvalve and Micropump Fabricated on a Silicon Wafer 444@ M. Esashi, S. Shoji, and A. Nakano (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:8.4 A Thermopneumatic Micropump Based on Micro-Engineering Techniques 450@ F. C. M. Van de Pol, H. T. G. Van Lintel, M. Elwenspoek, and J. H. J. Fluitman (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:8.5 Variable-Flow Micro-Valve Structure Fabricated with Silicon Fusion Bonding 455@ F. Pourahmadi, L. Christel, K. Petersen, J. Mallon, and J. Bryzek (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:8.6 A Pressure-Balanced Electrostatically-Actuated Microvalve 459@ M. A. Huff, M. S. Mettner, T. A. Lober, and M. A. Schmidt (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:8.7 Micromachined Silicon Microvalve 464@ T. Ohnstein, T. Fukiura, J. Ridley, and U. Bonne (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:@ SECTION 9 Fluidics 469@ 9.1 Microminiature Fluidic Amplifier 471@ M. J. Zdeblick, P. W. Barth, and J. B. Angell (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:9.2 A Planar Air Levitated Electrostatic Actuator System 473@ K. S. J. Pister, R. S. Fearing, and R. T. Howe (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:9.3 Liquid and Gas Transport in Small Channels 478@ J. Pfahler, J. Harley, and H. H. Bau (Microstructures, Sensors, and Actuators, November 1990).:9.4 Squeeze-Film Damping in Solid-State Accelerometers 487@ J. B. Starr (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:9.5 A Micromachined Floating-Element Shear Sensor 491@ M. A. Schmidt, R. T. Howe, S. D. Senturia, and J. H. Haritonidis (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:9.6 A Multi-Element Monolithic Mass Flowmeter With On-Chip CMOS Readout Electronics 495@ E. Yoon and K. D. Wise (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:9.7 Environmentally Rugged, Wide Dynamic Range Microstructure Airflow Sensor 499@ T. R. Ohnstein, R. G. Johnson, R. E. Higashi, D. W. Burns, J. O. Holmen, E. A'' Satren, G. M. Johnson, R. E. Bicking, and S. D. Johnson (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:@ SECTION 10 Surface Micromachining 503@ 10.1 Polycrystalline Silicon Micromechanical Beams 505@ R. T. Howe, R. S. Muller (Journal of the Electrochemical Society: Solid State Science and Technology, June 1983).:10.2 Integrated Fabrication of Polysilicon Mechanisms 509@ M. Mehregany, K. J. Gabriel, and W. S. N. Trimer (IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, June 1988).:10.3 Integrated Movable Micromechanical Structures for Sensors and Actuators 514@ L-S. Fan, Y-C. Tai, and R. S. Muller (IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, June 1988).:10.4 Polysilicon Microbridge Fabrication Using Standard CMOS Technology 521@ M. Parameswaran, H. P. Baltes, and A. M. Robinson (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:10.5 Process Integration for Active Polysilicon Resonant Microstructures 524@ M. W. Putty, S-C. Chang, R. T. Howe, A. L. Robinson, and K. D. Wise (Sensors and Actuators, November 1989).:10.6 Fabrication of Micromechanical Devices From Polysilicon Films With Smooth Surfaces 532@ H. Guckel, J. J. Sniegowski, T. R. Christenson, S. Mohney, and T. F. Kelly (Sensors and Actuators, November 1989).:10.7 Selective Chemical Vapor Deposition of Tungsten for Microelectromechanical Structures 538@ N. C. MacDonald, L. Y. Chen, J. J. Yao, Z. L. Zhang, J. A. McMillan, D. C. Thomas, and K. R. Haselton (Sensors and Actuators, November 1989).: @ SECTION 11 Bulk Micromachining 549; 11.1 Fabrication of Hemispherical Structures Using Semiconductor Technology for Use in Thermonuclear Research 551@ K. D. Wise, T. N. Jackson, N. A. Masnari, M. G. Robinson, D. E. Solomon, G. H. Wuttke, and W. B. Rensel (Journal of Vacuum Science Technology, May/June 1979).:11.2 Micromachining of Silicon Mechanical Structures 555@ G. Kaminsky (Journal of Vacuum Science Technology, July/August 1985).:11.3 Strings, Loops, and Pyramids-Building Blocks for Microstructures 565@ H. H. Busta, A. D. Feinerman, J. B. Ketterson, and R. D. Cueller (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:11.4 Corner Compensation Structures for (110) Oriented Silicon 570@ D. R. Ciarlo (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:11.5 A Study on Compensating Corner Undercutting in Anisotropic Etching of (100) Silicon 574@ X-P. Wu and W. H. Ko (Transducers '87, The 4th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, June 1987).:11.6 A New Silicon-on-Glass Process for Integrated Sensors 578@ L. J. Spangler and K. D. Wise (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:11.7 Mechanisms of Anodic Bonding of Silicon to Pyrex Glass 582@ K. B. Albaugh, P. E. Cade, and D. H. Rasmussen (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:11.8 Silicon Fusion Bonding for Pressure Sensors 584@ K. Petersen, P. Barth, J. Poydock, J. Brown, J. Mallon Jr., and J. Bryzek (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1988).:11.9 Low-Temperature Silicon-to-silicon Anodic Bonding With Intermediate Low Melting Point Glass 588@ M. Esashi, A. Nakano, S. Shoji, and H. Hebigushi (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:11.10 Fusing Silicon Wafers With Low Melting Temperature Glass 592@ L. A. Field and R. S. Muller (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:11.11 Silicon Fusion Bonding for Fabrication of Sensors, Actuators and Microstructures 596@ P. W. Barth (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:11.12 Scaling and Dielectric Stress Compensation of Ultrasensitive Boron-Doped Silicon Microstructures 604@ S. T. Cho, K. Najafi, and K. D. Wise (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:11.13 Field Oxide Microbridges, Cantilever Beams, Coils and Suspended Membranes in SACMOS Technology 610@ D. Moser, M. Parameswaran, and H. Baltes (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on SolidState Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).:11.14 Micromachining of Quartz and its Application to an Acceleration Sensor 614@ J. S. Daniel, F. Michel, and G. Delapierre (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors 111, June 1990).: @ SECTION 12 LIGA 621@ 12.1 Fabrication of Microstructures using the LIGA Process 623@ W. Ehrfeld, P. They, F. Gotz, P. Hagmann, A. Maner, J. Mohr, H. O. Moser, D. Munchmeyer, W. Schelb, D. Schmidt, and E. W. Becker (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:12.2 Deep X-Ray and UV Lithographies for Micromechanics 634@ H. Guckel, T. R. Christenson, K. J. Skrobis, D. D. Denton, B. Choi, E. G. Lovell, J. W. Lee, S. S. Bajikar, and T. W. Chapman (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, June 1990).:.; SECTION 13 Computer Aided Design 639@ 13.1 OYSTER, a 3D Structural Simulator for Micro Electromechanical Design 641@ G. M. Koppelman (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:13.2 A CAD Architecture for Microelectromechanical Systems 647@ F. Maseeh, R. M. Harris, and S. D. Senturia (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:13.3 CAEMEMS: An Integrated Computer-Aided Engineering Workbench for Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems 653@ S. Crary and Y. Zhang (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:13.4 CAD for Silicon Anisotropic Etching 655@ R. A. Buser and N. F. de Rooij (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).: @:SECTION 14 Metrology 657@ 14.1 Can We Design Microbotic Devices Without Knowing the Mechanical Properties of Materials? 659@ S. D. Senturia (Proceedings IEEE Micro Robots and Teleoperators Workshop, November 1987).:14.2 The Use of Micromachined Structures for the Measurement of Mechanical Properties and Adhesion of Thin Films 664@ M. Mehregany, M. G. Allen, and S. D. Senturia (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensors Workshop, June 1986).:14.3 Mechanical Property Measurements of Thin Films Using Load-Deflection of Composite Rectangular Membrane 667@ O. Tabata, K. Kawahata, S. Sugiyama, and I. Igarashi (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1989).:14.4 Fracture Toughness Characterization of Brittle Thin Films 672@ L. S. Fan, R. T. Howe, and R. S. Muller (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:14.5 Spiral Microstructures for the Measurement of Average Strain Gradients in Thin Films 675@ L-S. Fan, R. S. Muller, W. Yun, R. T. Howe, and J. Huang (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:14.6 Polysilicon Microstructures to Characterize Static Friction 679@ M. G. Lim, J. C. Chang, D. P. Schultz, R. T. Howe, and R. M. White (Proceedings IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, February 1990).:14.7 Study on the Dynamic Force/Acceleration Measurements 686@ A. Umeda and K. Ueda (Transducers '89, Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Solid State Sensors and Actuators and Eurosensors III, June 1990).:14.8 Anomalous Emissivity from Periodic Micro Machined Silicon Surfaces 690@ P. J. Hesketh, B. Gebhart, and J. N. Zemel (Technical Digest IEEE Solid-State Sensors Workshop, June 1986).:@ AUTHOR INDEX 693; SUBJECT INDEX 697; ABOUT THE AUTHOR 701@ EDITOR'S NOTES ON THE SECOND PRINTING 702