The Optics of Thermotropic Liquid Crystals

S. J. Elston and J. R. Sambles, eds.

1998

256 pages

This book incorporates research-level developments and perspectives in optics from a materials science and physics viewpoint, as well as exploring defect structures and non- linear optics. The editors also address the fundamental physics of commonly experienced LCDs, reviewing the important, now well-established nematic structures and covering the emergent new areas of ferroelectrics and electroclinics.

Contents

Introduction:

Background

The ESD Problem

Protecting against ESD

Outline of the Book

References

ESD Phenomena and Test Methods:

Introduction

Human Body Model (HBM)

Machine Model (MM)

Charged Device Model (CDM)

Comparisons between the Test Methods

Transmission Line Test Method

Other Test Methods

Failure Criteria

Test Procedures

References

Physics and Operation of ESD Protection Circuit Elements

Introduction

Resistors

Diodes:

Forward bias

Reverse bias

p-i-n Diode

Transistor Operation:

Bipolar transistors

MOS transistors

Avalanche conditions

Transistor Operation under ESD Conditions:

Bipolar transistors

MOS transistors

SCR Operation

References

Design and Layout Requirements

Introduction

Design Concepts:

Thick field device

nMOS transistors (FPDs)

Gate-coupled nMOS (GCNMOS)

SCR protection devices

ESD Protection Design Synthesis:

SCR primary protection

Secondary protection devices Field plate diode Isolation resistor

Protection scheme

Total Input Protection:

Inputs with diffusion resistor

Inputs with polysilicon resistor

Polysilicon resistor reliability

Input/Output Buffer Layout and Protection

Selecting a Protection Circuit

Bipolar and BiCMOS Protection Circuits:

Introduction

Protection circuit strategies

Bipolar/BiCMOS output protection

Bipolar/BiCMOS input protection

Layout

ESD and performance trade-offs

Summary

References

Failure Modes, Reliability Issues and Case Studies:

Introduction

Failure Mode Analysis:

Failure analysis techniques

Electrical characteristics after damage

Physical analysis of failure modes

Reliability and Performance Considerations

Advanced CMOS Input Protection

Optimizing the Input Protection Scheme

Designs for Special Applications

Process Effects on Input Protection Design

Total IC Chip Protection

Power Bus Protection

Internal Chip ESD Damage:

Vdd Vss Stress current damage

Output to Vdd stress

Stress Dependent ESD Behavior

Summary

References

Modeling and Characterization:

Introduction

The Physics of ESD Damage

Thermal (Second) Breakdown

Analytical Models Using the Heat Equation

Electrothermal Simulations

Circuit Simulations

References

Influence of Processing on ESD:

Introduction

Source/Drain Junction Effects

Gate Oxides

Contacts and Silicidation

Wells, Epitaxial Thickness and Substrate Resistance:

Wells

Epitaxial thickness

Substrate resistance

Silicon-On-Insulator (SOl)

Packaging

References

Conclusions

Long-term Relevance of ESD in ICs

State-of-the-Art for ESD Protection

Current Limitations

Future Issues

References